Fruitful Cooperation

FRUITFUL COOPERATION

PART II

Tsar Peter the Great was
a barber-surgeon with a clear medical vision
1672-1725

Peter the Great, in 1682, became the Tsar of Russia at a very young age of ten years. As a teenager, Peter had many friends in the Nemetskaya Sloboda, the foreigner's area, in Moscow.One of his closest friends were the family's court physicians, Johan (Ivan) Termont, a skilled barber-surgeon, and Zacharias van der Hulst, a doctor medicinae. They both were of Dutch origin and Peters first teachers on theoretical and practical medicine.

Peter the Great, Tsar of Russia (1672-1725)

Peter the Great, Emperor of Russia (1672-1725, oil on canvas, artist Godfrey Kneller, London, 1698.
Image RCIN 405645 Royal Collection Trust. In public domain

King-Stadtholder Willem III (1650-1702)

Portrait of William III, Prince of Orange, stadtholder of the Netherlands and king of England since 1689. Oil on canvas, artist Willem Wissing, 1680-1710, London. https://www.rijksmuseum.nl/nl/collectie/SK-A-1228.
In public domain

They, together with other Dutch people, taught him also the Dutch language. Perhaps that is why Peter, from his childhood on, considered King-Stadholder William III as his hero. If he wanted to take his country out of isolation and transfer it into modern civilisation, he knew he had to travel to Europe to develop his visions and ideas. During1697-1698, Peter made his first visit to Europe with the Grand Embassy. He again visited Europe in 1716-1717. He wanted a better connection with Europe and implementations of reforms and innovations in his country.

Leiden University was an example for medical reforms

Leiden University

The Academy building of Leiden University in 1614, a pen-and-ink drawing. Artists Jacob Marci and Justum à Colster, 1 January 1614, Academia Leidensis. In: Illustrium Hollandiae Westfrisiae ordinum alma academia Leidensis, Lugduni Batavorum (Leiden), 1614.

Padua in Italy had been the most famous University for medical and anatomical education. As a consequence of the Reformation, a Papal edict excluded all non-Catholics at Italian universities. As a result, in the seventeenth century, the centres of anatomical studies moved from Padua to France, England, and in particular to the Netherlands. The Leiden university, founded in 1575 by Prince-Stadholder William the Silent, was open to all students irrespective of race, nationality or religion and became famous for its anatomical and medical school. Even Tsar Peter the Great was aware of that.

William the Silent, Prince-stadholder of Orange I (1533-1584)

Portrait of William the Silent, Prince-stadholder of Orange, founder of Leiden University.
Oil on panel Adriaen Thomasz. Key, Antwerp 1579. https://www.rijksmuseum.nl/nl/collectie/SK-A-3148, In public domain

During his trip with the Grand Embassies, Peter visited anatomical theatres in Leiden and Amsterdam. In October 1697, Tsar Peter visited for the first time Leiden university. He was very interested in the establishment and laws of this University, its botanical garden and anatomical theatre. Govert Bidloo, Professor in Anatomy and President of the board of directors (Rector Magnificus) of the University and his colleagues, presented him with a Latin general description of everything concerning the University. Two times he took with him the statutes of the establishment. Govert Bidloo was also court physician of King-Stadholder William III and the head of the medical service of the army. Peter attended anatomical classes in the Leiden anatomical theatre, which is described in detail in his annals. After his return from England in April 1698, he paid tribute to Willem the Silence, the founder of Leiden University, during a visit to his tomb in Delft. Then he went on to visit the botanical garden and the anatomical theatre of Leiden University again.

Govert Bidloo
(1649-1713)

Professor in Anatomy, President of the board of directors of Leiden University, also court physician of King Stadholder William III and the head of medical service of the army.
He was the uncle of Nicolaas Bidloo, court physician of Peter the Great.
© Leiden University, Leiden

Anatomical Theatre of Leiden University

Since the foundation of the Leiden University in 1575 the anatomy professors held demonstrations only in winter by lacking of preserving materials. First they enriched the anatomical theatre with skeletons of human bodies and animals. Also all kinds of prints and objects concerning anatomy or connected with Calvinistic ideas about life and death were added.

© Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden

The colour copper plate of the Anatomical theatre of Leiden University

The Military Medical Academy named SM Kirov is the proud owner.

Nicolaas Bidloo laid the foundation of medical education in Russia

Tsar Peter, who needed a new court physician, invited Nicolaas Lambertus Bidloo (1673/4-1735) a graduate and doctor medicinae (similar to a PhD-title) of Leiden University. Bidloo accepted the offer and started his work in Russia in 1702. His father, Lambert Bidloo, was a pharmacist in Amsterdam. Govert Bidloo, Rector Magnificus of Leiden University was his uncle and brother of his father. After his first trip to Europe in 1703, Peter the Great organised training for the most talented Russian students at Leiden University. Peter realised that this was not sufficient. Together with Nicolaas Bidloo, he founded the first medico-surgical school with a hospital, an anatomical theatre and a botanical garden in Moscow.

Nicolaas Bidloo - Alumni of Leiden University (1674-1735)

Nicolaas Bidloo co-founded the first medical-surgical school with a hospital, anatomical theater and a botanical garden. He was the director of the country's first hospital and medical school. He is considered one of the founders of Russian medicine.
Nicolaas Bidloo, oil on canvas, Artist M.V. Apraksina, Saint Petersburg 2021,
© Photographer Inge F. Hendriks. Private collection

This school, designed by Bidloo, worked along the lines of Leiden University both theoretically and practically. In Moscow, the "Bidloo school" officially opened its doors in 1707 for Russians and Russians with foreign roots. Furthermore, Nicolaas Bidloo introduced the Leiden method of exam for surgeons. The first higher education institute prepared students for a possible follow-up study to Doctor Medicinae abroad. After graduation, these scholars mainly went to Leiden University.

Bidloo’s medical-surgical school with a hospital, anatomical theatre and a botanical garden in Moscow

A view of Nicolaas Bidloo’s garden and the adjacent hospital, pen-and-ink drawing, artist Nicolaas Bidloo, Moscow, beginning of the 18th century. In public domain

A selection of almost 50 dissertations obtained at Leiden University

A compilation of some theses by doctors with Russian and foreign roots. They were trained by Leiden University in the 18th century and have held high positions in Russia. In public domain

Textbook by Nicolaas Bidloo

NL. Bidloo, Instruction to study surgery in the anatomical theatre, Moscow, 3 January 1710. In Latin. As a scientific publication, it is the first and original handwritten textbook for higher medical education in Russia. Fundamental library, Military Medical Academy named SM Kirov.
© The Military Medical Academy named SM Kirov

In 1710 Bidloo finished a handwritten instruction for his students to study surgery. As a scientific publication, it is the first and original textbook for higher medical education in Russia. The manuscript contains terms, names, and the usage of surgical instruments in French, German and even in Dutch.

Two-track policies in healthcare and medical education

Peter the Great never betted on a single horse. Thus, he started a two-track policy in healthcare. The Aptekarskiy Prikaz grew in staff size. Gradually it changed from a court institution to a state institution. The medical school of the Aptekarskiy Prikaz, founded in 1654, was not a higher education institution but prepared barber-surgeons to serve in the military and the navy. Over 60 years of its existence, the school functioned unevenly. In a modern sense, it was not a school. In 1707, because Peter had established better alternatives, he decided to close this school and at the same time renamed the Aptekarskiy Prikaz to Aptekarskaya Kantselyariya (Pharmaceutical Chancellery).

Peter started to open ten hospitals in large strategic centres: a garrison, a navy and a land force hospital in 1710 in Saint Petersburg, and navy hospitals in Kronstadt and Revel. These hospitals also contained schools where a barber-surgeon title could be obtained after a period of practical experience in regiments.

In 1712, a large part of the Aptekarskaya Kantselyariya was moved from Moscow to the new capital Saint Petersburg. In 1716 Tsar Peter appointed instead of an apothecary a doctor medicinae head of the Chancellery. This doctor medicinae was for the first time by crown named Arkhiyater of the Chancellery (synonymous with Minister of Healthcare).

Table of name changes Aptekarskiy Prikaz

Overview of the development of Aptekarskiy Prikaz, the "Ministry of Health", especially during the 18th century due to the institutionalisation and reforms in Medicine. The names that were used, the founder of the governmental structure, the founding year and the individual or collective that was in charge.

© Produced by Inge F. Hendriks, 2020

The purchase of the collections of Frederik Ruysch and Albert Seba

Peter visited anatomical theatres in Leiden and Amsterdam. He was captured by anatomical and zoological collections and saw their educational value.In Europe, due to the East- and West Indian Companies in Holland, a trend emerged to supply and collect exotic curiosities. Many royal courts and private houses of the rich and famous gathered those kinds of curiosities and even unique cabinets.

During his first Grand Embassy 1697-1698 to the Netherlands, Peter spent most of his time in Amsterdam and visited more than once the anatomist Frederik Ruysch, who became his second teacher in medicine.

Frederik Ruysch

Portrait Professor Fredrik Ruysch, Oil on canvas, Artist Juriaen Pool (II), Nothern Netherlands, 1702.
https://www.boijmans.nl/en/collection/artworks/2585/portrait-of-professor-frederik-ruysch. In public domain

He taught Peter how to carry out bloodletting, surgical incisions, suture wounds, extract teeth and perform post mortems. The Tsar had an above average interest in surgery and management of trauma. The tsar visited also the city Delft and he met Antoni van Leeuwenhoek (1632 -1723). He was allowed to look through the microscope and saw “such tiny objects”. He was so fascinated that he took one of the microscopes back with him to Russia.

Meeting with Antoni van Leeuwenhoek

Meeting Peter I with Antoni van Leeuwenhoek
Peter the Great and Antoni van Leeuwenhoek in the city of Delft, pen-and-ink drawing. Artist V.S. Bedin, 2004. Image OF 87224.
© From the collection of the Military Medical Museum, St. Petersburg

Replica microscope of Antoni van Leeuwenhoek

© Photographer Inge F. Hendriks. Private collection

Since 1672 Ruysch had perfected the preparation technique of anatomical specimens and blood vessels by injecting dyes and resins. He invented an original way of embalming corpses. He sampled a unique collection of museum exhibits (congenital abnormalities and malformations) and created the first anatomical museum in Amsterdam. His museum possessed a rich collection of anatomical and zoological objects, dried plants, insects and birds. All were carefully described in great detail. Peter the Great greatly admired the anatomical specimens of humans and animals on his visits to the museum. In 1698 he obtained his first collection of anatomical and zoological specimens.

The small zoological collection of Fredrik Ruysch

This collection was obtained by Peter the Great during his first Great Embassy in 1697-1698 and was part of his private collection. Nowadays it is part of the collection in the Department of Biology of the Military Medical Academy named SM Kirov in Saint Petersburg.

Zoological specimens

Surinamese toad pipa (ca. 1855)

Four-eyed possum by Albert Seba (1734)

The anatomical objects are known as the "small private collection of 26 dry and wet human specimens” of Fredrik Ruysch. The two first collections became part of the Aptekarskiy Prikaz in Moscow, awaiting the settlement of the Prikaz in St.Petersburg, since 1703 the new capitol. In 1798 these small collections were transferred from the Meditsinskaya Kollegiya to the Imperial Medical Surgical Academy (now the Military Medical Academy named S.M. Kirov) in St. Petersburg.

Dry preparations from the Frederik Ruysch collection

Four dry specimens of the “small collection of 26 dry and wet objects” by Frederik Ruijsch. This small collection was privately owned by Tsar Peter the Great and is housed in the museum of the Department of Anatomy of the Military Medical Academy called SM Kirov. The image shows the skeleton of a laughing boy and a dancing monkey. Also depicted is a body called a Torso Situs Inversus Totalis, because the organs innately are present in the body in mirror image. The pictured heart shows the same abnormality and is called Heart Situs Inversus.

Wet preparations from the Frederik Ruysch collection

Three wet preparations from the “small collection of 26 dry and wet objects” by Frederik Ruijsch. This small collection was privately owned by Tsar Peter the Great and is housed in the museum of the Department of Anatomy of the Military Medical Academy called SM Kirov.

The Kunstkamera, museum of anthropology and ethnography

Building of Kunstkamera

Engraving fragment “The avenue downstream the Neva River between the Winter House of Her Imperial Majesty and the Academy of Sciences-Kunstkamera”, Copper plate engraving, artists G.A. Kachalov after drawing by M.I. Makhayev, Saint Petersburg 1753. In public domain

Peter the Great wanted his own museum with curiosities and founded the Kunstkamera in 1714. Meanwhile, Peter again travelled in 1716-1717 with his second Grand Embassy through Europe, including France and the Netherlands. When given a chance, he bought the famous Ruysch collection of anatomical preparations for his new Kunstkamera. The Tsar managed to get Ruijsch to reveal the secrets of embalming the dry and preserving the wet specimens. Peter passed on this knowledge to his court physician Laurentius L. Blumentrost (1676-1756) as the chief supervisor of the Ruijsch collection to take care of the collection. Blumentrost, in turn, passed the secret on to doctor Rieger, who finally put it in writing and made the secret public.

Specimens of Fredrik Ruijsch from the wide collections of the museum “Kunstkamera” / A hand decorated with lace. / An embryo and a foot decorated with lace

Child head of Fredrik Ruijsch / Children's arm with retina by Bernard Albinus / Child's hand of Fredrik Ruijsch / Embryo gut of Bernard Albinus

The Tsar also bought in 1716 the natural-historical collection of the apothecary Albert Seba. It contained 340 jars with animals kept in the spirit of wine, a quantity of fish and other sea products, and without counting a collection of several artificial and curious pieces. The Kunstkamera opened for the public in 1719. Peter the Great established the Imperial Academy of Science in 1724, and the Kunstkamera became part of the Academy. Nowadays, the zoological collection of Seba can be admired in Zoological Museum of the Zoological Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences in Saint Petersburg.

Portrait Albert Seba (1665 – 1736)

Dutch pharmacist, zoologist and collector.
Engraving by Jacobus Houbraken (1698-1780) after Jan Maurits Quinkhard (1688-1772), dated 1731.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Albertus_Seba_by_Jacobus_Houbraken_after_Jan_Maurits_Quinkhard.jpg. In public domain

Nautilus pompillius (phragmocone), a mother-of-pearl shell with arthropods engraved on it.

The chamber portion of a cephalopod's shell is divided into several spaces by internal walls.

It is suspected that the engravings were made by Jean Bellekin (Belequin or Bellquin) (1597-1636), a well-known mother-of-pearl cutter and engraver in Amsterdam in the early 16th century. It is also possible that son Cornelis (1615-1696) made the engravings, but then in the mid or late 17th century. Cornelis had been taught this technique by his father. Photographer Roman Tamchenko, 2020.

Pipa Pipa, Surinam toad

Surinamese toads are known for their reproductive habits. The males do not croak, but produce a sharp clicking sound by breaking the hyoid bone in their throat. The male swims in arcs through the water, releasing 3 to 10 eggs per arc. The male implants these into the skin on the female's back. The eggs sink into the skin and form cavities for several days. The skin resembles an irregular honeycomb. The embryos grow into tadpoles and eventually leave the mother's back as fully developed toads. After that, the mother sheds the thin layer of skin.

Photographer Roman Tamchenko, 2020.

Hypsiboas boans, Rana Boans (Rana Surinamemsis) Linnaeus 1758.

Large tree frog, Inv.nr. ZISP 222.

Photographer Roman Tamchenko, 2020.

Pseudis paradoxa, Rana Americana (Albert Seba), Rana Paradoxa Linnaeus, 1758

The body is stocky, the head is relatively small and the eyes and nostrils are more on top. The colour is usually green to olive brown, the underside is yellow with many black spots. The skin is smooth and slimy and the toes on the hind legs have large webbed feet. It is a "shrinking" frog hence paradoxically. The egg turns into a large larva and after a while into a small frog. The adult frog is three times smaller than the larval form. This is very exceptional for frogs.
Photographer Roman Tamchenko, 2020.
© Zoological Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences, (ZIN RAS)

The brown four-eyed opossum (Metachirus nudicaudatus) is a pouchless marsupial.

The animal is mainly found in the forests of Central and South America. It is a nocturnal, solitary, strong and all-eating animal. It lives mainly on land and feeds on fruit seeds, small vertebrates such as birds and reptiles, as well as invertebrates such as crayfish and snails.
The brown four-eyed opossum builds nests from leaves and twigs in tree branches or under rocks and logs. It is seasonally prolific and has a litter size ranging from one to nine. The white patch above each eye inspired the common name of "four-eyed opossum". Its scaly tail is longer than its body.
Photographer Roman Tamchenko, 2020.
© Zoological Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences,(ZIN RAS)

Medical instruments:
another two-track policy

A particular concern for Peter was the purchase of drugs, herbs and medical instruments. In March 1698, the Amsterdam merchant Wouter Falden (Valden) received a substantial sum for medical instruments specially made for the Tsar. These instruments were transported to Moscow by the physician Alfer Penders. The Dutch admiral Cornelis Cruys, in service of the tsar, together with Johan Termont were responsible for purchasing drugs and medical devices for the army. The Dutch merchant Christopher Brandt also was responsible for significant medical purchases and personally accountable for the delivery to Moscow.

Medical instruments of Peter de Great

Peter the Great owned a beautiful collection surgical and trepanation instruments, which were special made for him (it is not clear, whether they all were made exclusively for Peter or he has bought them ready-made). These instruments can be admired in the department of Russian Culture of the 1st half of 18th century in the State Hermitage Museum in Saint Petersburg.

Surgical instruments Inv.nrs. ERTh 1132-1140,, Photographer Pavel Demidov.
© The State Hermitage Museum, Saint Petersburg, 2021

Trepanation instruments Inv.nrs. ERTh 957, 960, 961, 963, 965, 1069, 1068, 1075, 1078,
1089, 1755., Photographer Pavel Demidov.
© The State Hermitage Museum, Saint Petersburg, 2021

Dental Instruments of Peter I

Inv.nrs. ERTh-1118, 1117, 1120. Photographer Vladimir Terebenin, Leonard Kheifets, Yuri Molodkovets.

© The State Hermitage Museum, Saint Petersburg, 2021

Tonsil cutter

Inv.nr. ERTh-1124. Photographer Olga Lapenkova.

In Mai 1698, the tsar bought a small travel pharmacy in Amsterdam for 15 gold ducats and drugs from the pharmacy het Gouden Doel ("the Golden Goal"). At Peter's request, his travel pharmacy was delivered to him at the Dutch East Indian Company's shipyard.

Especially for his court physicians Johann Termont and Zacharias van der Hulst and other barber-surgeons, he purchased medical instruments in the Netherlands and Great Britain.

Peter I's Travelling Medicine Chest

There are three of these finely handcrafted travel pharmacies, which were manufactured around 1613-1615 in Augsburg, Germany by Tobias Loyker and Hans Georg Brenner. One was the personal travel pharmacy of Tsar Peter the Great and is located in the State Hermitage Museum in St Petersburg. Two are in museums in Germany, one in the Pharmacy Museum in Heidelberg Castle in Heidelberg, and the other in the Art Handicraft Museum in Frankfurt-am-Main. Inv.Nr. ERTh 1389, Photographer Pavel Demidov.
© The State Hermitage Museum, Saint Petersburg, 2021

Peter I's Travelling Medicine Chest

A travel home pharmacy, decorated with carved bone ornaments. Brought from the East by the East India Company Association and bought by the king in Amsterdam during his first Grand Embassy? Peter I's Travelling Medicine Chest. Inv.nr. ERTh-984, Photographer Vladimir Terebenin, Leonard Kheifets, Yuri Molodkovets.

Medical Instruments for his court physicians and barber-surgeons

Medical instruments of Tsar Peter de Great's court physicians? He bought medical instruments in the Netherlands and England for his court physicians and barber-surgeons in the army.

Instrument for mouth opening. Inv.nr. ERTh-1122. Photographer, Dmitry Sirotkin.

Medical Instruments of Peter I: Inv.nrs. ERTh-950, 973, 1096. Photographer Vladimir Terebenin.

In Great Britain, he paid a physician named Baldwin Anders for crats and transportation of his medical instruments purchases. He wanted to hide them from the medical trade during the transport from Detfort to London. Therefore, possibly several old instruments in the State Hermitage Museum in Saint Petersburg are descended from these two doctors as well.

The land of the Tsar and Emperor of Russia in Europe and Asia depicting the road from Moscow to Beijing

Inv.nr. ERG-34511. Photographer Darya Bobrova.

The two pharmacies in Moscow, inherited by Peter from his father Tsar Alexey Mikhailovich,
and the later eight private pharmacies in Moscow were responsible for producing and repairing surgical instruments. The pharmacies were also responsible for the purchase of apothecaries' jars, carafes and scales. It was a private enterprise, consisting of single individual artisans, usually foreigners, who worked by contract. The assortment and quality of the tools were various. From 1700 to 1721, Russia was at war with Sweden to obtain access to the Baltic Sea. In 1703 Russian troops made their way to the Finnish Gulf in the same year that Peter the Great built his new capital. The Russian army multiplied, and the number of hospitals increased. Many instruments of the regimental chests were lost, damaged and became rusted. They had to be cleaned, repaired and replaced.

Portrait of Emperor Peter I (1672-1725)

Oil on canvas, 1716, artist Benoît Le Coffre (1671-1722), French School Denmark, Copenhagen, Photographer V.S. Korolev. ID GMZ Peterhof: GMZ Pf KP 7018 PDMP 865-zh
© The Peterhof State Museum-Reserve, 2021

Apothecary vessels / Apothecary can

Inv.nrs. LI-85, LI-86. Photographers Vladimir Terebenin, Leonard Kheifets, Yuri Molodkovets. © The State Hermitage Museum, Saint Petersburg, 2021 / Inv.nr. LI-91. Photographers Vladimir Terebenin, Leonard Kheifets, Yuri Molodkovets. © The State Hermitage Museum, Saint Petersburg, 2021

Wooden scales

Tsar Peter understood the great need for an excellent military healthcare service with suitable physicians and medical instruments. His two-track approach also resulted in two lines of instruments manufacturing, one by the Apterkarskiy Prikaz and the other by ta factory for medical instruments.

Stamp and/or mark

The blacksmith or the cutler stamped his mark/symbol into the object. This punch mark was the symbol of the guild/manufacturer. See the left two instruments. The other instruments could be made by the Frenchman Etienne Stephen Lubote. One from the time he worked in Paris and the other when he worked in Imperial Russia.

Medical Instruments of Peter I: Inv.nrs. ERTh-1061, 1086, 1094, 936. Photographers Vladimir Terebenin, Leonard Kheifets, Yuri Molodkovets.

In 1717, during his second Grand Embassy, Peter visited all Leiden factories located around Leiden University at the Rapenburg, and the most medical instrument makers. He had interesting, detailed conversations with manufacturers, masters of instruments and with its physician-scientists of the University. The local craftsmen, blacksmiths, and cutlers produced instruments on a local surgeon's request. These craftsmen were organised in a guild, protecting their members against unfair competition and safeguarding their quality. The blacksmith or the cutler stamped their mark/symbol into the object. This punch mark was the symbol of the guild/manufacturer.

After Peter's return from abroad, he built a wooden factory for medical instruments on the Apothecary Island in his new capital, Saint Petersburg. The factory was finished in 1722. Wooden dinghies started to bring simple equipment like anvils, hammers, pincers, and bellows for the forge. The instrument-maker received a vice, a grinder, a saw, a workbench with a wheel and a wooden log and surgical instruments imported from Europe. The Russian masters started without instructions or help from foreigners. The first surgical instruments received a good reputation, and surgeons appreciated them.

Barber-surgeons

From the middle of the 15th century on barber-surgeons and surgeons likewise started to organise guilds. The guilds detailed the requirements, qualifications, exams and exam judgement for the membership. A professor of the Leiden University, head of the guild, carried out the theoretical instruction and examen for surgeons. Although the latter were of lower prestige, the barber-surgeons and surgeons had to undergo a similar practical examination. Their knowledge of the veins, arteries, nerves, a correct diagnosis of a few medical cases was put to the test. They had to carry out a successful bloodletting, one surgical operation, and the manufacture of two or three lancets from a piece of raw iron. Practically, they had to refine two or more rough lancets and to polish up its shape and its functioning within 14 days, which were tested with a sheet of leather sturdy held between fingers.

In the 17th century, "modern" textbooks were used, among others A general system of surgery in three parts, translated from Latin to English (1750) by Lorenz Heister and Manuale Operatien (1684) by Cornelius Solingen. The latter one was a doctor/surgeon and former student of Leiden University with a practice in The Hague. He did not only describe and illustrate his own manufactured instruments but also those of others. More importantly, Solingen described the effect of dirt on the healing process. Consequently, he made smooth instruments.

GO TO PART III

Fruitful Cooperation | Part I

Medicine from ancient Rus' till Peter the Great

Fruitful Cooperation | Part II

Tsar Peter the Great was a barber-surgeon with a clear medical vision (1672-1725)

Fruitful Cooperation | Part III

Successors of Peter the Great 1725–1762

Fruitful Cooperation | Part IV

Institutionalisation and education in healthcare (1762-1810)

Fruitful Cooperation | Part V

Period 1810-1860

Fruitful Cooperation | Part VI

Period 1860 – 1881